Community Energy Literature Review

Many local authorities in the UK have committed themselves to timetabled action on climate change. According to Hilary Lamb [1], in November 2018 Bristol City Council became the first principal UK authority to declare a climate emergency in the UK, pledging to aim for net zero carbon emissions by 2030. Other cities with similar targets include London, Manchester, Lancaster, Leicester, Nottingham, Oxford, Durham, Sheffield, Cambridge, Plymouth, York, Sunderland and Newcastle. The city authorities have been joined by many town, parish and district councils in pledging to sharply reduce their carbon emissions on similar time scales. More recently the UK parliament passed a motion making it the first in the world to declare an “environment and climate emergency” [2], and this has now passed into law as an amendment to the 2008 Climate Change Act. In the context of these commitments, the focus of this post will be on the scope available to local authorities to take action. A report pu...

A recent discussion paper from a UK energy policy group describes the current governance of UK energy as confused, with advisory and regulatory bodies which have different objectives, and are concerned with different aspects of the energy system. The paper analyses the present structure of governance, and makes recommendations for reform. The model of governance recommended is that of New York State’s Reforming the Energy Vision (REV) initiative, which describes itself as concerned with renewable energy; building and energy efficiency; clean energy financing; sustainable and resilient communities; modernization of energy infrastructure; innovation and R&D; and transportation [1]. A paper on the REV initiative by J. D. Makholm [2] reports that important aspects of the project drew inspiration from the UK. In view of the above policy group recommendation, this claim invites examination. New York has pursued the REV initiative since 2014. Makholm describes it as borrowing often ...

A method and its limitations The three preceding posts have been about minimum safe levels of air change, types of indoor air pollutants, and ways of estimating air change rates. The last reference was to a method based on monitoring the decay of indoor CO2 levels in a room or building [1]. This method and its results will be examined here in more detail. The concept is straightforward: CO2 is produced by the occupants of a space over a suitable time, and then they leave. Normal ventilation is maintained, and a monitor records the subsequent levels of CO2 in the space and in the incoming air. These data allow calculation of the air changes per hour (ACH). The exact value of the initial level of CO2 is unimportant. Under a constant level of ventilation, the rate of removal of CO2 will be proportional to its concentration in the space. This defines an exponential decay, tending to equilibrium when CO2 concentration in the space matches that in the incoming air. Monitoring...

CO2 monitors of useful accuracy are available at modest price, and the information they provide about air quality in the home can be used in different ways. A first question in response to a home CO2 reading might be about its health implications. This issue is addressed by Usha Satish et al. in their 2012 paper Is CO2 an Indoor Pollutant? Direct Effects of Low-to-Moderate CO2 Concentrations on Human Decision-Making Performance [1] The writers point out that it has been thought that adverse effects attributed to raised CO2 levels in the home are actually due to other pollutants commonly associated with CO2. They describe how their experiment was designed to eliminate this possibility and so isolate the effects of CO2. Before presenting their own findings, they summarise previous research on levels of CO2 much higher than those likely to be encountered in the home: “ CO2 concentrations > 20,000 ppm cause deepened breathing; 40,000 ppm increases respiration m...

Three main groups of pollutant have been distinguished as affecting indoor air quality. According to Schieweck et al., [1] they are outdoor air pollutants, occupant-related pollutants, and building-related pollutants. Those entering a building from outside include carbon monoxide (CO), benzene (C6H6), sulphur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3), oxides of nitrogen(NO, NO2), and particles. Pollutants mainly produced by occupants include CO2, bio-effluents and particulate matter. Those originating from the materials used in building construction, furnishing and indoor equipment are typically volatile organic compounds, and also viruses, fungi and bacteria. The levels of such pollutants may clearly be important to the health of occupants, but are of particular concern if energy saving measures are taken which may increase the concentration of any pollutants by reducing ventilation levels. Such measures are of interest to many Community Energy groups in the UK, where domestic heating eff...

Energy saving, ventilation and health. In the UK an appreciable proportion of total energy consumption can be ascribed to heating buildings, and of this energy a significant amount is used to heat air. If the number of air changes per hour (ACH) is unnecessarily high, energy is wasted. This post concentrates on domestic buildings, in which a reduction in ACH can often be achieved by cheap and simple means, giving a rapid return on expenditure through lowered energy costs. However, the ACH figure for a house should not be reduced below the minimum needed for the health of its occupants and the preservation of its fabric. In order to know whether the ACH for a dwelling should be reduced, the actual ACH value is needed, and to know by how much it can safely be cut, the minimum figure is required. Pressurisation is one method of measuring the actual ACH figure, and is described in ATTMA Technical Standard L1 Measuring Air Permeability in the Envelopes of Buildings , 2016 (ope...

The impact of policy changes: The opportunities of Community Renewable Energy projects in the UK and the barriers they face Pegah Mirzania, Andy Ford, Deborah Andrews, George Ofori, Graeme Maidment Energy Policy 129 (2019) 1282–1296 The role of Community Renewable Energy (CRE) is reviewed in the context of the energy trilemma (the problem of delivering energy security, equity, and environmental sustainability), changing policy, and the UK’s aging infrastructure. The paper is based on information gathered from community energy groups during 2016 and 2017. It describes the “huge problems” that arose following changes in government policy, and concludes with recommendations on future policy and on business models. Key points in the early development of government policy on CRE are reviewed, the growth of the sector is compared with that achieved in other European countries, and a series of later policy changes are listed which were detrimental to the prospects of CR...